In July 9, 1955 Lord Bertrand Russell anounced the Russell - Einstein Manifesto. The document was sighed by him, Albert Einstein, and M. Born, P. Bridgman, L. Infeld, Joliot-Curie, H. Muller, L. Pauling, C. Powell, J. Rotblat, and H. Yukawa. The famous Russell–Einstein Manifesto thus appeared.

In particular, the Manifesto ran as follows,

We have to learn to think in a new way. We have to learn to ask ourselves, not what steps can be taken to give military victory to whatever group we prefer, for there no longer are such steps; the question we have to ask ourselves is what steps can be taken to prevent a military contest of which the issue must be disastrous to all parties?

In conclusion, it was proposed to summon an international conference that would adopt the following resolution:

In view of the fact that in any future world war nuclear weapons will certainly be employed, and that such weapons threaten the continued existence of mankind, we urge the governments of the world to realize, and to acknowledge publicly, that their purpose cannot be furthered by a world war, and we urge them, consequently, to find peaceful means for the settlement of all matters of dispute between them.

The first Pugwash conference took place in the Canadian village of Pugwash, Nova Scotia on July 7–11, 1957. This event initiated a long-standing and fruitful dialogue of scientists from many countries on the most urgent problems of science and politics. Twenty two scientists from ten countries took part in this first meeting. For the first time, prominent scientists from the East and West met to discuss not scientific and technological progress, but its political consequences. All participants had received personal invitations, and they did not represent any country or organization. The latter has been established as an inviolable rule, which remains effective to this day. Another Pugwash tradition is that of closed-door discussions; short statements are presented for the press only after the meeting.

Three main questions defined the agenda for the first Pugwash conference: the perils of nuclear weapons in times of both war and peace; the control of nuclear weapons; and the social responsibility of scientists. The conclusions that were reached at the conference concerning the danger of radiation were confirmed a year later in a report published by the UN Scientific Committee. The participation of Soviet scientists—Academicians D.V. Skobel’tsyn and A.V. Topchiev, Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences A.M. Kuzin, and Deputy Scientific Secretary of the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences V.P. Pavlichenko—was an important outcome of the conference: it promoted the establishment of friendly relations between scientists from the USSR Academy of Sciences and their international colleagues at a time when they met very seldom owing to the severe restrictions imposed by the Soviet leadership.

On August 13, 1957, a statement by 200 prominent Soviet scientists was published in which they praised the Pugwash conference and called upon scientists from all over the world to combine their efforts in the struggle to affect a ban on nuclear weapons, and particularly for an immediate ban on nuclear testing. This appeal was supported by many scientific organizations in Moscow, Leningrad, Sverdlovsk, Kiev, and other cities. The USSR Academy of Sciences acknowledged the statement of those who participated in the Pugwash conference and other scientists as an important contribution to the reduction of the threat of nuclear war and establishment of perpetual peace. The Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences decided to form a group of participants in the Pugwash movement to be headed by Learned Secretary of the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences Academician Topchiev. In 1964, the Soviet Party Central Committee officially transformed this group into the Soviet Pugwash Committee under the Academy’s Presidium.

The Academy and its scientists were among the pioneers of the Pugwash movement, making considerable contributions to the development of control systems for nuclear tests and the nonproliferation of nuclear materials. This was specially emphasized during the celebrations of the 275th anniversary of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1999).

To organize further activities, the Pugwash conference adopted a resolution to establish the Pugwash Continuing Committee, which would consist of the following individuals: Lord Russell (the chair); Professors Powell, Yu. Rabinovich, and Rotblat; and Academician Skobel’tsyn. It was decided at the Continuing Committee’s first meeting in December 1957, in which L. Szilard, K. von Weizsacker, J. Bernal, and others took part, that Pugwash conferences would be held annually in different countries.

It was decided at the third Pugwash conference (Austria, 1958) to widen the membership of the Continuing Committee. Academicians Skobel’tsyn, Topchiev, and E.K. Fedorov from the Soviet Union were included.

In the first 15 years of the Pugwash movement, several international acts on disarmament and nuclear arms control were concluded. Scientists united by the Pugwash movement played key roles in the development and signing of these international legal norms. As far back as at the fourth conference in Baden (1959), it was proposed that the Nonproliferation Treaty be signed into effect. Discussions that took place at subsequent forums made it possible to work out the main provisions of the treaty and prepare it for the signing in 1968. At this time, members of the Pugwash movement were also working actively on the Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapons Tests in the Atmosphere, Outer Space, and Under Water, which they regarded as the first step towards the general abolition of nuclear weapons.

In this connection, the search for ways to limit nuclear weapons tests and methods for controlling them represented some of the first questions included on the agenda of the Pugwash conferences. In 1962, a proposal was initiated within the framework of the Pugwash movement whose implementation removed a number of disagreements that had arisen during the negotiations on disarmament between the United States and the Soviet Union. It was the idea of Academician I.E. Tamm that, for purposes of seismic monitoring, automated stations be added to the national facilities for detecting nuclear explosions.

D. Hodgkin, a British chemist and Nobel Prize winner, who also acted as president of the Pugwash movement from 1975 to 1987, later recalled that it was the specialist in molecular biology, American Professor A. Rich, who had worked alongside Russian physicist and Nobel Prize winner Tamm in preparing the first Soviet–American document on the control of underground nuclear tests. Their approach involved the use of “black boxes” containing sensitive seismic devices for registering explosions.

N.S. Khrushchev supported the idea of “black boxes.” Leading scientists from the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union took part in a closed conference in London on March 16–18, 1963, which was summoned on the initiative of the Pugwash Continuing Committee and was devoted to the elaboration of this problem. Academician L.A. Artsimovich and Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences Yu.V. Riznichenko represented the Soviet Union. The conference also examined special proposals to improve control methods, as well as options for reaching an agreement on the number of inspections and their membership. Artsimovich presented official Soviet proposals on control methods to the representative of the US Administration. Tamm’s recommendations were supported by Artsimovich and were presented to the Soviet Party Central Committee by Vice President of the USSR Academy of Sciences Academician V.A. Kirillin, who headed the Soviet Pugwash Committee from February 1963 to March 1964. These recommendations were an important contributionto the development of the control system of under ground nuclear explosions and turned up in the governmental correspondence between the Soviet Union and the United States.

The problem of controlling nuclear tests began to be considered in the framework of the Pugwash movement after the Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapons Tests in the Atmosphere, Outer Space, and Under Water had been signed in 1963. In 1966–1967, Senior Advisor of the British government Lord Zuckerman initiated trilateral meetings between scientists from the Soviet Union, the United States, and Great Britain on the improvement of control methods. Vice President of the USSR Academy of Sciences Academician M.D. Millionshchikov and Academician Artsimovich represented the Soviet Union. The series of meetings in London under the aegis of the Pugwash movement played an important role in arriving at mutually acceptable methods of controlling nuclear tests.

After the commission of the first Soviet membership of the Pugwash Continuing Committee had expired in 1963, Academicians Artsimovich, Kirillin (replaced by Academician Millionshchikov in 1964), and V.M. Khvostov were elected to the committee.

In 1964, following long discussions associated with the widening of the Pugwash movement, the Continuing Committee decided to form a joint Soviet–American Pugwash group on disarmament and arms control. Academician Millionshchikov, who in the same year also headed the Soviet Pugwash Committee, and American biochemist Professor P. Doty became co-chairs. The proceedings of the group included in-depth discussions concerning current problems involved with controlling weapons, as well as ways of liquidating nuclear arsenals in the future, leading to the preparation of the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT-1) and the Antiballistic Missile Treaty (ABM) of 1972.

The Soviet–American group considered many options for reducing arms, which were quickly implemented in practice. The mutual understanding that was reached in connection with the ABM Treaty, officially reported to the USSR and US governments, was the most significant result. The creation of a system of ballistic missile defense could significantly destabilize the balance of nuclear forces by increasing nuclear arsenals. However, US Secretary of Defense R. McNamara failed to convince A.N. Kosygin about this issue in 1967. However, it was during the discussions that occurred around this question within the Soviet–American group that Millionshchikov and Artsimovich realized the necessity of signing the ABM agreement. In 1968, the official Soviet position was revised, and the possibility emerged to begin the preparation of the respective treaty. It is also noteworthy that Academician A.D. Sakharov actively supported the ABM treaty: in 1968, he raised the question of a moratorium on the limitation of antiballistic defense systems before the Soviet leadership.

The special Pugwash workshop (Krogerup, Denmark, July 14–20, 1968) was devoted to the problem of antiballistic defense, and it was here that the technical, economic, and political aspects of the ABM were elaborated. The Soviet delegation (Academician A.P. Vinogradov, I.V. Milovidov, and I.G. Pochitalin) proposed to their fellow participants, the majority of whom represented the United States and Western Europe, that they discuss Kosygin’s initiatives concerning the impending negotiations between the Soviet Union and the United States. It is noteworthy that the grounds for these bilateral negotiations had to a considerable extent been prepared by the Pugwash movement under the active participation of Artsimovich, V.S. Emel’yanov, P.L. Kapitsa, and Millionshchikov (representing the Soviet Union) and Doty, F. Long, G. Rathjens, and J. Ruina (from the United States).

The final meeting of the Soviet–American group took place in July 1972—several weeks after the SALT-1 and ABM Treaties had been signed. The membership of this meeting is noteworthy. Academicians Millionshchikov, Vinogradov, N.N. Inozemtsev, and A.M. Prokhorov and Corresponding Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences G.A. Arbatov, Emel’yanov, and E.M. Primakov represented the Soviet delegation, while the American delegation included Doty, C. Vance, F. Long, W. Panofsky, Rathjens, Ruina, and M. Shulman. It is noteworthy that there were, amongst this group, future ministers of foreign affairs of the respective countries. Further steps aimed at controlling weapons were discussed at the meeting. In 1974, the group was disbanded for various reasons, both objective and subjective [10]. Bilateral relations between Soviet and American scientists in the framework of the Pugwash movement recommenced only in the 1980s, with the active participation of Academicians E.P. Velikhov, V.I. Gol’danskii, N.A. Plate, and R.Z. Sagdeev, Professor S.P. Kapitsa, and some others.

From 1973 to 1987, the USSR Academy of Sciences was represented in the Pugwash Continuing Committee (from 1974, Pugwash Council) by Academicians M.A. Markov and O.A. Reutov, as well as by Corresponding Member V.G. Trukhanovskii.

The problems associated with banning chemical and biological weapons played a special part in Pugwash activities. In 1959, a special conference was held to address these questions, and beginning in 1964 the biological group worked within the movement to promote the signing of the Biological Weapons Convention (1972). The Pugwash group on chemical weapons commenced its activity in 1974 in Geneva and would eventually contribute to the preparation of the text of the Chemical Weapons Convention (1993). The following outstanding Russian chemists and biologists played an active role in these “affiliated” Pugwash structures: Academicians Gol’danskii, Vinogradov, M.M. Dubinin, N.S. Enikolopov, A.A. Imshenetskii, V.A. Kargin, N.K. Kochetkov, S.S. Medvedev, Reutov, N.M. Sisakyan, A.V. Fokin, and V.A. Engel’gardt.

Chairman of the Soviet Pugwash Committee from 1973 to 1987 Academician M.A. Markov took an active part in Pugwash work and was the author of a series of papers that addressed the social responsibilities of scientists and sought to elucidate the philosophy of the Russell–Einstein Manifesto.

Executive Secretary of the Soviet Pugwash Committee for the years 1957–1967 and 1973–1991 Pavlichenko played a special role in the development of its scientific and organizational activities. In addition to his administrative activities, he did much to popularize the Pugwash movement, serving as one of its publishing historians. In the 1960s–1980s, I.A. Sokolov, Dr. Sci. (Econ.), made an important contribution in terms of the relations between the Soviet Pugwash Committee and the Soviet political leadership.

The Soviet Pugwash Committee organized three annual Pugwash conferences: in Moscow (1960), Sochi (1969), and Dagomys (1988). The committee played a considerable role in supporting and developing scientific ties between scientists of the Soviet Union and Western countries during the war in Vietnam, the installment of Soviet troops in Czechoslovakia and Afghanistan, and in the persecution of Sakharov. The members of the Soviet Pugwash Committee—Nobel Prize winners Academicians P.L. Kapitsa, Prokhorov, N.N. Semenov, Tamm, I.M. Frank, and P.A. Cherenkov— played an important role in the development of the international dialogue between scientists from different countries.

The membership of the Pugwash Council was renewed at the 37th Pugwash Conference (Gmunden, Austria, 1987). Academician Gol’danskii, Corresponding Member A.A. Gromyko, and Prof. S.P. Kapitsa represented the USSR Academy of Sciences at this conference.

Following the advent of perestroika in the Soviet Union, the Pugwash movement began to focus on the problems involved in creating a world that is free of nuclear weapons, as well as on the signing of the convention on chemical weapons and ecological questions. The Declaration “Ensuring the Survival of Civilization” adopted at the 38th Pugwash conference in Dagomys (1988) stressed the necessity of solving problems of the environment and economic development as concurrent to ensuring peace throughout the world. In the opinion of the authors of the declaration, which included Gol’danskii, Yu.A. Izrael’, A.S. Ginzburg, and S.P. Kapitsa, the latter conditions are essential for ensuring the safe and just development of humanity.

In 1991, the Pugwash movement initiated the widereaching international project “World without Nuclear Weapons.” A large group of internationally known scientists, including Gol’danskii, S.P. Kapitsa, L.P. Feoktistov, and others said for the first time that nuclear deterrence did not cover the whole world. It would clearly not achieve the desired results in the case of military operations against fanatic religious groups, terrorist organizations, and, most probably, against certain thinly populated developing countries.

After the Chemical Weapons Convention (1993) had been signed, a group was formed within the framework of the Pugwash movement for the purpose of supervising the conventions on chemical and biological weapons. The Russian scientists Plate, K.K. Babievskii, and V.G. Baranovskii, as well as diplomats and the military, took part in this activity.

In the early 1990s, problems associated with the conversion of the military industry were studied within the framework of the Pugwash movement under the leadership of Academician V.S. Avduevskii and Professor J. Holdren (the United States). The results of these investigations are presented in one of the Pugwash monographs.

In 1997 Prof. A.I. Nikitin replaced Prof. S.P. Kapitza in the Pugwash Council.

After death of Academician Golganskii in 2001 Academician & Ambassador Yuri Ryzhov was approved by the RAS Presidium as a chairman of the Russian Pugwash Committee. In 2002 Academician Ryzhov was elected as a member of the Pugwash Council.

The Russian Pugwash Committee has always been one of the most active national Pugwash organizations. Owing to the active support of the RAS Presidium and the participation of famous Russian scientists—Plate, V.V. Zhurkin, B.V. Litvinov, V.N. Mikhailov, B.F. Myasoedov, A.Yu. Rumyantsev, A.M. Vasil’ev, S.M. Rogov, S.I. Kolesnikov, S.P. Kapitsa, A.I. Nikitin, Ginzburg, and many others—the committee has managed to stand up to new conditions and to continue its active work.

The series of international workshops “The State and Prospects of Nuclear Complexes in Russia and the United States,” organized by the Russian Pugwash Committee in 1992–2004, was of special importance on the agenda of Pugwash meetings. The workshops were held in Moscow, St. Petersburg,

Petrozavodsk, Obninsk, Troitsk, Sarov (Arzamas-16), and Snezhinsk (Chelyabinsk-70). Specialists from more than 30 countries took part in them. The technical, economic, and political aspects of disarmament,

financial support of domestic nuclear complexes, the safety of nuclear power, and the utilization of superfluous nuclear materials were discussed within this project. One of the practical results of this activity was the opening of the Center of Nonproliferation in Sarov, which was supported by the Russian Pugwash Committee.

The Nobel Peace Prize awarded to the Pugwash movement in 1995 was a worthy tribute to the enduring contribution of the scientific community to the solution to global problems. This tribute rightfully belongs, as well, to the outstanding domestic scientists who have participated in the Pugwash movement—Academician Artsimovich, A.A. Blagonravov, N.N. Bogolyubov, Vinogradov, Gol’danskii, M.M. Dubinin, P.L. Kapitsa, Kargin, Markov, Millionshchikov, Reutov, Skobel’tsyn, Tamm, Topchiev, A.N. Tupolev, Feoktistov, Engel’gardt, and many others.

For more information, see:

Ryzhov Yu. A., Lebedev M.A. Pugwash // International Affairs. 2003. Vol. 49, no. 5.

Ryzhov Yu. A., Lebedev M.A. RAS Scientists in the Pugwash Movement // Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 2005. Vol. 75, no. 3.